South America is a continent that comprises the southern portion of
America. It is also considered a subcontinent of the American continent.
Its extension is 17 819 100 km2, covering 12% of the Earth's surface and
6% of the world's population. It is joined to Central America to the
north by the Isthmus of Panama and separated from Antarctica to the
South by the Drake Strait. It stretches 7 500 km from the Caribbean Sea
to Cape Horn, the extreme southern point of the continent. The other
extreme points of South America are: to the North Punta Gallinas in
Colombia, to the East Ponta do Seixas in Brazil, and to the West Punta
Pariñas in Peru. Its natural boundaries are: to the north with the
Caribbean Sea; to the east, northeast and Southeast with the Atlantic
Ocean; and to the West with the Pacific Ocean. Brazil currently
represents half of the population and economic product of this region.
In the nineteenth century, the continent received about 15 million
immigrants from Europe, and suffered cultural and ideological influences
from both the United States and Europe. In the twentieth century, as an
effort to stimulate trade, production and South American integration as
a whole, economic agreements and organizations were signed such as the
ABC pact in 1915, the Andean Community of nations (CAN) in 1969, the
Latin American Free Trade Association (ALALC) in 1960, which was
replaced by the Latin American Development and Exchange Association
(ALADI) in 1981, the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) in 1991. Finally,
on May 23, 2008, the constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American
nations (UNASUR) was signed in the city of Brasilia, where the South
American union was structured and made official, officially establishing
the economic integration between the sovereign states of the
subcontinent in the midst of the III summit of Heads of State and
Government of South America.
The region has vast natural
resources and serious economic and social problems. The industry is
concentrated in the processing of agricultural products and the
production of consumer goods, with emphasis on the automobile industry.
In Brazil and Argentina it is more diversified, covering sectors such as
Extraction, Oil Refining and steelmaking. Brazil accounts for about
three-fifths of South American industrial production. Mining includes
the extraction of oil (most notably Venezuela), copper, tin, manganese,
iron and others. Agriculture is intensive in tropical areas, where there
are export-oriented crops (coffee, cocoa, bananas, sugar cane, cereals).
Animal husbandry is practiced on a large scale in the south and center.
Although it is sometimes confused with Latin America, South America
is usually defined based on geographical criteria, while Latin America
tends to be made up of elements of a cultural order.
The continent offers the traveler a complete repertoire of natural
attractions, such as the largest tropical forest in the world (Amazon),
the largest river in the world (Amazon), the second largest mountain
range (Andes), isolated oceanic islands (Galapagos, Easter Island and
Fernando de Noronha), paradisiacal beaches (northeast Brazilian coast),
the lençóis Maranhenses with its lagoons and dunes that enchant the
visitor , deserts (Atacama), glacial landscapes (Patagonia and Tierra
del Fuego), the highest waterfall in the world (Salto angel, with 979 m
fall, in Venezuela) and the falls with the largest volume of water
(Iguazu Falls), among many other breathtaking natural monuments.
In addition, the hand of man has left treasures on the continent: ruins
of ancient civilizations (Machu Picchu and other cities built by the
Incas, MOALS of Easter Island), metropolises of World influence (São
Paulo, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro), genius architectural works
(Brasília, Ouro Preto, Medellín), the oldest cave paintings on the
American continent (Serra da Capivara), manifestations of Black Culture
(Salvador, Cartagena and Rio de Janeiro), Indigenous (Belém, Manaus,
Cuzco, Lima, La Paz) and Oriental (São Paulo, Lima), mixed with the
Iberian matrix of the colonizers, one of the best known monuments on the
planet (Christ the Redeemer, in Rio), the southernmost city in the world
(Ushuaia, Argentina) and some of the biggest popular festivals on the
globe (Carnival of Salvador, Barranquilla and Rio de Janeiro, Círio De
Nazaré in Belém. The historic center in the cities of (São Luís and
Alcântara).
Spanish is the official language in all countries except Brazil,
Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. The dialect varies between
countries, although all are noticeably different from the Spanish found
in Spain or the Mexican dialect taught to many students in the
southwestern United States.
Portuguese is the official language
of Brazil, comprising about half of the continent's population and land
area. Note that the dialect is very different from the Portuguese spoken
in Portugal. Spanish and Portuguese are closely related and knowing one
will provide you with some basic communication skills with the other.
In the border area between Uruguay and Brazil Some people are fluent
in a mixture of Portuguese and Spanish, known as portuñol, and it's
certainly viable for rude communication if you don't speak the other
language. But many homonymous terms have different meanings.
Expressions and slang can change dramatically from one country to
another or even from one city to another. Since words that have a
totally innocuous meaning in one place may have a vulgar meaning in
another, it's good to do some research before using words like "coger"
(meaning "to catch" in Spain and a vulgar reference to sexual
intercourse in most of Spanish America) or "Ficha" (meaning "a line of
people waiting" in Portugal, but a very derogatory way of referring to a
gay man in Brazil). In the wrong context it is possible to offend people
or cause childish laughter.
There are also many Indigenous
peoples living in South America who speak their own languages. The most
notable Native American languages in South America are Quechua (Bolivia
and Peru) and guarani (80% of Paraguay's population). In the Falkland
Islands and Guyana, English is the official language, while in Suriname
and French Guiana the official languages are Dutch and French,
respectively.
With the exception of Suriname, English proficiency
in the second language tends to be low across the continent. That said,
many people who work in the tourism industry, as well as businessmen who
regularly deal with foreign clients, speak English with a conversational
level.
Aconcagua Provincial Park takes its name from quechua word of “Ackon-Cauakâ€, which roughtly is translated as ‘Stone Sentinel’. Splendid Andes Mountain Range draws all types of thrill seekers ranging in difficulty including hiking, climbing, skiing and etc.
Machu Picchu is an ancient archeological Inca site 69 mi Northwest of Cusco in Peru. Peruvian government secured 326 sq km as a "Historical Sanctuary" to preserve Machu Picchu archaeological site. In 1983 Machu Picchu was added to a UNESCO World Heritage Site and in 2007 it was chosen as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.
The Inca Trail to a great Incan settlement of Machu Picchu is one of the greatest hikes you will ever undertake. It lies in a beautiful Andean mountain range and connects numerous ancient archaeological settlements along its way.
Nazca Lines are located 12 mi (20 km) North of Nazca in Peru. These lines were created between 500 BC and 500 AD these spectacular creations went largely unnoticed until 1927 than the pilot saw shapes of animals, trees and various geometric figures.
Colombia ·
Guyana ·
Suriname ·
Venezuela ·
French Guiana
Colombia and
Venezuela stand out for their mix of Andean culture, Amazon rainforest
and a prodigious coastline of paradisiacal beaches. Cartagena de Indias
and Isla de Margarita are just some of the destinations that receive
thousands of tourists each year who come to enjoy the favorable climate,
temperate waters and vegetation of the area. Urban areas such as Bogotá
, MedellÃn , Cali and Caracas stand out when mixing their Hispanic
origins with modernity.
The Guyanas, meanwhile, are more exotic
destinations. The recent colonial past of Guyana and Surinam contrasts
with the jungle that covers their lands.
Bolivia ·
Ecuador ·
Peru ·
Colombia
In the heart of South
America, the Andes are enchanted by ancient ancient cultures and the
preserved baroque cities of colonial origin, such as Lima and Quito .
The pre-Columbian traditions have managed to maintain and integrate with
the current civilization, offering tourists their particular magic in
destinations such as Cusco or Machu Picchu . Contrasting landscapes
between jungle and desert can be found next to beautiful and deserted
beaches on the Pacific coasts. The Titicaca , the highest navigable lake
in the world, and the native fauna of the Galapagos Islands are some of
the highlights of this area.
Brazil
The largest country in Latin America and probably the most
recognized worldwide, highlighting the Carnival , and the famous beaches
of Rio de Janeiro , the giant " Amazon " or the rich and cosmopolitan
São Paulo , the largest city in the southern hemisphere. However,
Brazil is more than that, with a territory that stretches from the
Atlantic to almost touching the Andes, incorporating places such as the
Pantanal , one of the largest wetlands in the world, the paradisiacal
Parque Nacional dos Lençois or the islands of Fernando de Noronha .
Its rich history that mixes indigenous cultures, Portuguese colonialism
and the traditions of former African slaves, has allowed the emergence
of attractive cities such as Salvador de Bahia or the futuristic
capital, Brasilia.
Argentina ·
Chile ·
Paraguay ·
Uruguay
The southernmost part of the
continent is full of diversity on both sides of the Andes mountain
range. In the Pacific, the arid lands of Atacama contrast with the
fjords and glaciers that fall into the sea in Patagonia , while the
Pampas and their mountains extend from the Andes to the Atlantic. The
lakes and forests cover great extensions in the cordilleranos faldeos
and the coasts are populated with penguins and whales.
With one
of the highest living standards in the continent, you can also find a
vibrant urban life in its main cities. Buenos Aires is an icon of
western culture, although ValparaÃso , Santiago or Montevideo are not
left behind.
By plane
Getting to South America has become much easier due to the huge
increase in flights to the continent by major global airlines. Although
some specific places are still quite difficult to reach (for example
Paraguay, Suriname, northern Brazil), the places you probably want to
go, such as Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International
Airport, are more accessible than ever.
From Africa: the only
(reliable) option worth considering would be Ethiopian Airlines service
from Addis Ababa to Rio de Janeiro International Airport (Galeão) and
Guarulhos. Realize that the demand between Africa and South America is
very limited, so even the services mentioned above are not frequent and
the fares can be quite high.
From Asia: be prepared for a very long
trip, especially if your itinerary includes connecting flights.
Guarulhos is the only destination with flights from the Far East. Korean
Air's route between Seoul and Guarulhos involves a stopover in the
United States (LAX), so it will require all passengers to clear U.S.
Customs and immigration. Air China flies to Sao Paulo from Beijing. From
the Middle East, there are a few more alternatives; Emirates (Dubai) and
Qatar Airways (Doha) fly nonstop to Sao Paulo. Of these, Qatar Airways
goes to Buenos Aires, and Emirates has another line to South America —
via Galleon to Buenos Aires.
From Oceania: there are a surprising
number of options. LATAM Airlines serves Auckland and Sydney from
Santiago. Qantas introduced a non-stop service between Sydney and
Santiago in March 2012, and Air New Zealand flies direct from Auckland
to Buenos Aires. LATAM also operates one of the world's most obscure
flights — a service linking Santiago and Easter Island. From Perth,
Emirates offers affordable flights to Buenos Aires with a stopover in
Dubai, with a total flight time of around 30 hours.
From Europe:
political and social ties between former colonies and their former
metropolises remain strong. Portuguese carrier TAP Airlines is by far
the main foreign carrier to Brazil, serving a number of destinations in
the North and east of the country, as well as the Brazilian capital
Brasilia. The Spanish carrier Iberia flies to most of the former Spanish
colonies, although neither Bolivia nor Paraguay is served. KLM flies to
Suriname and Air France to French Guiana. Of course, these services are
not exclusive — KLM also flies to Lima, Air France to Rio de Janeiro,
etc. Other major European airlines such as British Airways and Swiss
Airlines also serve major South American locations from their respective
headquarters, while South American Airlines also operate in several
major European cities. Air Europa also flies to many cities in South
America from Madrid.
From North America: historically, Miami airport
has been the main U.S. gateway to South America, but several others are
popular. U.S. discount airlines such as Spirit Airlines and JetBlue now
serve Colombia, Brazil and Peru. Latin American carriers such as
Avianca, LATAM and Copa Airlines offer good services in the region.
By car
Although it seems that there is a land connection, there are
actually no roads linking Panama to Colombia, and therefore it is not
possible to drive from Central America. Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Peru
and Brazil have good roads. Night driving is generally dangerous on this
continent.
By train
There are no railways between Panama and
Colombia, so you cannot enter the continent by train. In South America,
trains are not always the best option, or even an option, as most lines
have been abandoned for the better part of the last few decades.
However, some lines provide an opportunity to see amazing landscapes.
By boat
There are a few ferries that connect Panama to Colombia,
and they are also the only way to get from South America to Central
America. Some cruise ships cover part of the Caribbean cities.
The Union of South American nations provides visa-free access and a
customs union between all South American countries. With the exception
of Suriname, visitors from industrialized countries generally do not
need a visa anywhere in South America. U.S., Canadian, Australian and
New Zealand citizens need a visa on arrival in Paraguay as an "eye for
an eye" on the fees Paraguayan citizens pay for visas from those
countries. Yellow fever vaccination may be required to enter some
countries.
By plane
For longer distances, consider flying. In
South America, international flights are usually from capital to capital
(the exceptions are São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro with flights to the
entire continent). Some airlines, such as Aerolineas Argentinas, have
notable discounts on local connections. South America has so far not
seen the explosion of low — cost airlines that has happened in Europe,
Asia and even Africa to some extent and — mainly for political
reasons-international flights can be surprisingly expensive. A flight
within the continent can be as expensive or even more expensive than an
intercontinental connection to get to South America.
By train
There are no train services between countries in South America, and with
the exception of Argentina and Chile, local networks are quite limited.
Unfortunately, for most of the second half of the twentieth century,
services were reduced. However, there are a number of very picturesque
"tourist trains", including the 445 km Quito—Guayaquil route in Ecuador.
By bus
Buses are the main means of Land Transport for much of the
continent, they represent an economical but slower alternative to
flying.
Be aware that while most of the Cold War-era violence is
over, some parts of some countries are still not entirely safe and
crossing them by bus may not be a smart idea. For more information on
this topic, read the articles of cities.
By boat
You can get
from Montevideo to Valparaiso by cruise, passing through the Falkland
Islands, Ushuaia and Puerto Montt. Or with an extension to Antarctica.
Also along the South American coast from Buenos Aires to Brazil.
You can do the entire Amazon River by boat, starting in Peru, passing
through all of Brazil. There are all kinds of boats along the Amazon
River. Between Argentina and Uruguay, you can also cross the Rio De La
Plata by ferry.
South America is extremely rich and diverse whether in terms of
landscapes, culture or tourist attractions. They are unmissable places
to visit in the region:
The ruins of the Inca civilization - in
the middle of the andes is one of the most important archaeological
sites in the world. The ruins of civilization in Machu Picchu, Peru,
reveal the high degree of civilization reached by this pre-Columbian
civilization in a setting worthy of cinema;
Argentine and Chilean
Patagonia-a succession of landscapes teeming with wildlife amidst the
huge glaciers forming lush landscapes that are a unique experience for
the visitor.
Salt desert-in the interior of Bolivia the Salar desert
is an impressive place where instead of sand as occurs in all deserts
the visitor glimpses an unbelievable scenario where what dominates the
landscape and steals the attention is a region where soil is only made
of salt;
Pantanal-the largest floodplain in the world, concentrates
the largest number of bird species on the planet and with its countless
animal species such as alligators, sucuris, Jaguar (the largest feline
in the Americas) provides landscapes of incomparable beauty;
Amazon
rainforest-largest tropical jungle in the world, it also has the
greatest biodiversity on the planet in addition to the largest river in
the world (Amazon River), in the Amazon jungle everything seems
superlative, animal species are discovered at all times, it is where the
exotic is the rule, everything extraordinary and unbelievable is
possible in this immense natural laboratory that fascinates the whole
world.
Venezuelan coastline-the Venezuelan coastline is a natural
extension of the Caribbean Sea, being natural characteristic of this
region a turquoise sea and fascinating coastal landscapes and rare
beauty.
Lençóis Maranhenses Park - in an area the size of the city of
São Paulo, on the coast of Maranhão with dunes between which lagoons are
naturally formed, some very small and others huge, in a unique setting
where nature was extremely generous;
Iguazu Falls-the largest set of
waterfalls in the world fascinates tourists from all over the planet
with its grandeur and beauty. It is one of the most visited tourist
spots in South America and is located on the border of Brazil with
Argentina in the middle of the Iguazu National Park, a large nature
reserve.
Historical cities of Minas Gerais-perhaps the most
homogeneous and preserved set of Portuguese colonial architecture in the
world, the city of Tiradentes, Mariana and Ouro Preto make the visitor
return to the past in an environment full of architectural gems and
streets with stone pavement where Remarkable Facts of Brazilian history
occurred. A Heritage Site recognized by UNESCO.
Tango in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Montevideo, Uruguay
Soak up
the sun on the famous beaches of northeastern Brazil
Explore the
pristine jungle in the many nature reserves of the Amazon rainforest
Cycle through old Dutch plantations in Suriname
Ski the Andes in
Chile or Argentina
Experience a soccer match anywhere in South
America
Because it is home to the Andes mountain range, the longest in the world, South America is a great hiking destination. The Andes are magnificent and breathtakingly beautiful, and their terrain ranges from snowy peaks to steep passes and lush forests. Peru is probably the most famous trekking destination, including the world-famous Inca Trail and many lesser-known but equally rewarding trips. Bolivia also has many popular peaks that can be climbed by inexperienced mountaineers and many unknown but equally beautiful hikes from 1 to 12 days through the mountains and through the rainforest. Argentina and Chile, with their long Andean border, also offer a wide variety of hikes. In fact, almost all countries on the continent have beautiful mountains with great hiking, with the exception of low Paraguay, Suriname and Uruguay.
Some national currencies experience volatility from time to time,
most notably in Venezuela, where the official Bolivar exchange rate is
ridiculously disconnected from reality. The country is facing a major
political-economic crisis, and its currency has become extremely
devalued.
In most countries, the United States dollar is often
used. There is also limited use of euros (in French Guiana) and pound
sterling (in the Falkland Islands). Currencies other than the U.S.
dollar tend to be of little use and difficult to exchange outside their
area of Use and adjacent border areas.
The great ethnic and cultural variety of the native peoples and
immigrants who built the identity of South America provided a highly
relevant gastronomic wealth. The regional cuisine is quite rich and
there is a great variety of flavors, ingredients and forms of
preparation that is observed both in the Spanish-speaking nations and in
the interior of Brazil.
In the Spanish-speaking countries, the
Argentine gastronomic tradition is great, especially with regard to
locally produced meats and wines, with the city of Buenos Aires as a
great highlight in this regard in that country. In Peru, in recent years
there has been a high degree of gastronomic evolution that has earned
that country great recognition.
In Brazil, the typical cuisine of
Minas Gerais and Bahia are very famous, although there are typical
popular dishes of great tradition in the North and Northeast region and
in other parts of the country, varying greatly between one region and
another as a whole, in addition to destinations where, due to a great
cultural influence of immigrants from various parts of the world and the
country itself, there is a wide variety of restaurants, whether
thematic, international or even exotic, such as what traditionally
occurs in the city of São Paulo, where the gastronomic environment
reaches a high degree of sophistication.
South America offers a wide variety of drinks, some of which you can
only legally consume in your home country. Some drinks include yerba
mate, an infusion similar to a hot tea, and Inca Cola, an alternative to
the iconic American soft drink brand.
Remember that coca leaves
and tea (sachets) and other products are restricted or prohibited in
some South American countries, including Brazil and Paraguay, and in the
vast majority of countries outside of South America. Therefore, make
sure you do not carry any trace of tea or coca leaves before crossing
international borders.
The types of hosting available are the same as in North America and
Europe. For backpackers the best option is hostel or camping. However,
hotel rooms (like most other goods and services) are, with a few
exceptions, quite affordable compared to North America and Western
Europe. Pests are a risk if you sleep outdoors, especially in the
tropical parts of the continent.
Stay safe
South America has a
reputation for crime, including armed robbery, with Brazil, Colombia and
Venezuela being singled out as the most dangerous. Read in advance about
the individual destinations you plan to visit. As anywhere else in the
world, the right travel planning can mitigate any dangers.
Using
or carrying items that might identify you as a tourist can be a mistake.
You should not port anything that you would be upset if lost. Leave
expensive jewelry, watches and other valuables at home and take only
what you need. This goes for credit cards and other documents as well;
if you don't need them, leave them at the hotel, take only the money you
are likely to spend with you.
Although tropical storms are rare,
flash floods occur in several parts of South America. Earthquakes and,
in a few cases, volcanic eruptions are a risk in the Andean countries,
especially in Chile.
Tap water in many countries is not drinkable; it is advisable to
purify your own or buy bottled water. The countries with drinking water
are Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. In Colombia, tap water is drinkable in
Bogotá, but it is not recommended to drink tap water in the driest
regions of the country.
Malaria, dengue and yellow fever can also
be a risk on the continent, so check information in advance to see if
you will be in a high-risk area, get the necessary vaccinations and
medications.
Andean countries include areas at high altitudes,
making the phobia of heights a risk. This is a concern especially in
several popular destinations in Peru and Bolivia.
The reliability of postal services in South America is sometimes
doubtful. If you have something important to send, it is advisable to
use a private company instead of government-run services. In addition,
the governments of some countries impose heavy import duties or
significant limitations on imports, which can cause problems if you or
your friends try to send packages to the mainland.
Internet
access is widespread, but the speed varies. Government censorship of the
internet is rare.
In 2018, the most recent study on the settlement of South America was
published, carried out by 72 researchers from eight countries, and
belonging to institutions such as the University of São Paulo, Harvard
University and the Max Planck Institute, which traced a new history for
the arrival of humans in the subcontinent. About 17,000 years ago, the
first humans to populate the Americas entered North America through the
Bering Strait. The genetic affinity of this migratory current was with
peoples of Siberia and northern China. The descendants of this initial
wave of hunter-gatherers split into two lineages about 16,000 years ago
and separately expanded into Central and South America. The lineage
associated with the Clovis culture of North America, entered South
America through the Isthmus of Panama between 15 and 11.5 thousand
years, with archaeological sites in Brazil (Lagoa Santa) and Chile
(Monte Verde). About 9,000 years ago, their DNA disappeared from fossil
samples, and a second migratory wave, with DNA unrelated to the Clovis
culture, settled throughout the region, and from this second wave all
living Amerindians descend. A third more recent migration, about 4.2
thousand years ago settled in the Central Andes. The genetic results of
the study categorically show that there is no connection between the
Lagoa Santa people and groups from Africa or Australia, being their
genetic origin totally Amerindian.
On the south-central Brazilian
coast lived fishing and gathering populations in a period dating between
8000 years ago and the beginning of the Christian era. Their remains can
be seen in the so-called sambaquis which are mounds made of sand, earth
and shells, where food remains, tools, weapons, adornments and burials
are found. There are sambaquis that reach up to 35 meters high. This
simple material culture produced very elaborate stone and bone objects
(zooliths).
In Argentine Patagonia, in the province of Santa
Cruz, hunter-gatherers lived in the cave called Cueva de las Manos,
which records human activity from about 9300 years ago to 1300 years
ago. There are lithic traces, the use of Fire, food remains and animal
skins. In the archaeological site stands out a complex rock art. The
cave is located 88 meters above the course of the Pinturas River, being
difficult to access. The cave is about 20 meters deep, 10 meters high
and 15 meters wide.
The first humans in the Central Andes region
date back 12,000 years and were engaged in subsistence activities such
as hunter-gatherers. Archaeological evidence in localities in Peru, such
as in the coastal district of Paiján and in the province of Lauricocha
in the Sierra, proves this situation. Around 8000 years ago the first
sedentary groups appeared, which in addition to hunting, fishing and
gathering, cultivated plants for their subsistence. These groups were
identified in coastal areas and in the valleys of the mountains. In this
context, about 5000 years before the present, some settlements
developed, notably Caral and other settlements of the Supe Valley, such
as Aspero and Miraya, flourishing the oldest civilization in the
Americas, known as Caral-Supe.
The civilization of Caral
flourished and declined between 3000 BC and 1800 BC.. There were 20
settlements that lined the Supe Valley to the coast, over 40 km. Most of
the urban settlements were positioned on the banks of the Supe River,
such as Miraya, Lurihuasi and Cerro Colorado and others positioned on
the coast, near the beaches, such as Áspero and Vichama. The largest
urban cluster was the city of Caral which had a sophisticated
architectural complex, with pyramidal public buildings of varying sizes,
with each building consisting of a higher main body in the center and
descending lateral bodies. Exclusively residential sectors, other
multifunctional sectors and other residences attached to the pyramid
complexes were identified, which would be linked to the different social
structures. The City Plan of Caral and some of its components, including
the pyramidal structures and elite Residence, show clear evidence of
ceremonial functions, signifying a powerful religious ideology. In all
other settlements, pyramidal public buildings fused with circular
squares were found, as in Caral. There was a network of collaboration
between the settlements, which complemented each other economically: on
the coast, activity focused on fishing and gathering; in the Valley,
agriculture was predominant; in the mangroves, fishing and cultivation;
in the hills, hunting and gathering; and in the desert areas, the
construction of stone, clay and wood. The civilization of Caral did not
develop writing, but used a complex system of communication and records,
the quipo, which was also widely used by the inca civilization. The
organization of society was stratified and the distribution of wealth
unequal.
The Nazca civilization is a pre-Inca culture that
developed in southern Peru between 300 BC and 800 AD, well known for the
gigantic geoglyphs it produced in the desert highlands near the current
city of Nazca and known as the Nazca Lines.
The Chavín culture
was a civilization that even before the discovery of Caral-Supe was
considered the first in the Americas. The culture developed in northern
Peru, at about 3 150 meters altitude. The archaeological site of Chavin
de Huantar showed human occupation from 1500 BC to 300 BC.. In general,
the considered period of the Chavín civilization goes from 900 BC to 200
BC.. Their area of influence extended to other civilizations along the
coast. Chavin de Huantar was a ceremonial and pilgrimage center for the
Andean religious world and housed people from different latitudes,
distances and languages, becoming an important center of convergence and
ideological, cultural and religious diffusion around a cult spread over
a vast territory: the northern, central and southern coasts, the
Northern Highlands and the high jungle of Peru. The buildings and
squares were decorated with exuberant anthropomorphic and zoomorphic
symbolic iconography of extraordinary aesthetic synthesis, carved in
bas-relief. The Chavin culture did not develop writing. The Chavín
culture also demonstrated advanced skills and knowledge in metallurgy,
developing gold work with refining. And they used the melting of the
metal as solder. They domesticated camelids such as llamas that were
used as pack animals, fiber and meat. They also successfully grew
potatoes, quinoa and corn. They developed an irrigation system to aid
the growth of these crops. Pottery production took place between 850 BC
and 200 BC. Production has changed throughout the site's existence. A
use of volcanic paste during the first centuries and with little
variation in shape. Between 400 BC and 250 BC an intrusive material such
as granodiorite was used. Production was very diverse and intense when
the site experienced its busiest period. Ceramics contain diverse
chemical compositions which suggests multiple origins.
The
chibchas or Muisca were one of the main pre-Inca indigenous
civilizations, concentrated in present-day Colombia. Together with the
Quechua in the Andes and the Aymara in the Altiplano, they formed the
three most important sedentary groups in the subcontinent. The chavín
culture, in present-day Peru, established a commercial network and
developed agriculture from 900 BC.
In addition to these and
before the incas, there were other civilizations (peoples organized in
cities, not in tribes and villages) South American and also other
peoples who did not become civilizations. Originally, the incas were a
specific clan among the Quechua (or Quechua) people, who inhabited the
Andes. Although without knowing writing or the wheel, the incas and the
subjugated peoples built a highly advanced state. In 1530, the Inca
Empire was at its peak, with Emperor Huayna Capac. However, when he
died, he left as an inheritance an empire shared between his sons, which
caused a civil war between the two brothers. It was in this context that
the Spanish conquistadors arrived.
According to unofficial records, the first visual record of the
subcontinent by Europeans happened in 1498, by the Portuguese navigator
Duarte Pacheco Pereira. In the following years, other navigators made
explorations on the South American coast. In 1494, in the face of the
discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus, the Portuguese
Empire and the Kingdom of Castile rushed to negotiate the sharing of the
new lands. The division of the planet into two hemispheres was made
official in the Treaty of Tordesillas.
The Spanish, spurred on by
Hernán Cortés ' success in Mexico (against the Aztecs), descend through
Panama and land on the coast of the Inca Empire. The conquest resulted
in a violent demographic decline, drastically reducing the population of
the subcontinent.
South America was practically divided between
the two Iberian Kingdoms, with areas of Western-Pacific coastal
colonization for Castile and the eastern-Atlantic for Portugal.
Spaniards settled in the Prata, the Caribbean and the Andes. The
Portuguese, on the other hand, invested mainly in the extraction of
brazilwood and, later, in the plantation of sugar cane. The Iberian
colonization also brought religious proselytism, with the foundation of
Catholic missions for the conversion of the natives, the work being
conducted especially by the Jesuits.
The Iberian Union, formed
from 1580, extinguishes in practice the borders of the colonization
zones in South America. The main change of the Iberian Union is that
Portugal becomes the enemy of Spain's opponents, such as England and the
newly emancipated United Provinces of the Netherlands. With this, powers
such as England, France and the Netherlands invaded and occupied areas
of domination of the Iberian Kingdoms.
Little by little, a new
social and ethnic class emerged, from the miscegenation between Iberian
settlers and the Indians: the mestizos or Gentile (in Portuguese
America) and the mestizos or criollos (in Hispanic America). In the
areas of slavery, the same occurred between Europeans and Africans,
giving rise to mulattoes, cafuzos and Mamluks.
The eighteenth
century saw the revolts of Túpac Amaru, in Peru, and Felipe dos Santos
and the Inconfidência Mineira, in Brazil, against the injustices
committed by the colonial government. The revolts were a reaction to the
policy of enlightened despotism that, from Europe, tried to maximize the
profits obtained from exploration in its colonies, especially in the
mineral Area (gold, silver and diamonds). The Treaties of Utrecht in
1713 and Madrid in 1750 sought to delimit the new boundaries of the
division of the subcontinent between the two Iberian monarchies.
The Napoleonic Wars subjected Portugal and Spain to occupation (and,
in the case of the latter, political domination) by France, then at war
with England. This led English to attack South American lands under
Spanish control. With the restoration of sovereign monarchies, between
1811 and 1814, the colonizers tried to restore the rigid colonial
system, which provoked uprisings.
The Bachelor Simón Bolívar, the
platinum José de San Martín, and Bernardo O'higgins of Chile, are in
charge of organizing the colonial armies and little by little, they free
and conquer, militarily, the independence of the various South American
viceroyalties and captaincies, which become republics. In Brazil,
independence was fought between 1817 and 1825 (the year of recognition
by Portugal) by representatives of the native elites, but ended up only
being made effective at the initiative of the heir to the colonizing
throne, the then Prince Regent Pedro de Alcântara who crowned himself
Emperor Dom Pedro I in 1822. English, Dutch and French Guiana continued
under their metropolises. The first two would only become independent in
the second half of the twentieth century (Guyana in 1966 and Suriname in
1975), while the third is still an overseas Department of France.
During the struggles for independence, the intention of the
liberators was to unify all of Hispanic America Under One Republic
(pan-Americanism). Bolivar's plan for the unification of America fails
shortly after the Congress of Panama, to the chagrin of the Liberator.
Portuguese America, on the other hand, remains intact — except for the
extreme south. The Brazilian Empire establishes itself as a regional
power. Internally, the country suffers from the revolts of the Regency
period and The Ragged War.
The Paraguayan War turned into allies,
the hitherto enemies Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay with the aim of
stopping the territorial ambitions of general Solano López. The war ends
with a catastrophe for the Paraguayan nation that loses a part of its
territory, and has a very high cost in terms of lives and material
goods.
Chile faces the alliance of Peru and Bolivia in the war of
the Pacific (1879-1884), defeating them and occupying a territory rich
in guano. In this conflict, Bolivia no longer had access to the Pacific
Ocean.
Between 1899 and 1903, a dispute broke out between Bolivia
and Brazilians who, in successive migratory waves, occupied the Amazon
region of Acre in search of latex extracted from the rubber plantations
for the manufacture of rubber. By the Treaty of Ayacucho, the Brazilian
government recognized the possession of the region by Bolivia. The
conflict between Bolivia and the Brazilians of Acre became known as the
Acrian Revolution. After diplomatic efforts, the countries reached an
agreement where Bolivia would cede an area of 142,800 km2 and Brazil
would pay in exchange two million pounds sterling and build the
Madeira-Mamoré Railway.
From the 1870s, the place experienced a
wave of authoritarian and nationalist governments, led by typical
figures of Latin American politics called "caudillos". There were
caudillos of both reformist and conservative character. In general, the
authoritarian wave lasted until the rise of the industrial bourgeoisie
in the 1930s.
The 1930s in South America began under the strong impact of the Great
Depression or crisis of 1929 that followed in the United States. The
suspicion of rapprochement and the fear of alignment of some dictators
with the Axis powers, lead the US government (under Franklin Roosevelt
and Harry Truman) to create and implement the Good Neighbor Policy for
the place, aimed at increasing American economic and cultural influence
over South America.
During the period of authoritarianism
experienced by Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s, a process of
Democratic resistance began in various social spheres, including various
actors and institutions, which was fundamental for the end of military
regimes in several countries. In the wake of this process, political
parties reorganized, trade union movements and student movements
resurfaced. The pressure of civil society for the punishment of the
military and for the official recognition of the dead and disappeared,
added to the popular demands supported by the economic recession of
those years, occurred in several countries of America. The activism of
the Catholic Church in promoting justice during the 1970s and 1980s was
relevant because of the environment of human rights violations during
the dictatorships in Argentina, Brazil and Chile. Between 1979 and 1990,
the democratic transition was consolidated in South America:
There were substantial differences in the historical processes of each
country. In Argentina, for example, the failure of the Falklands War in
1982. In Chile, it was a gradual change with the strengthening of
popular mobilizations and the rearticulation of left-wing parties.
Despite the specificities in the histories of military regimes, the
process of democratization was invariably marked by many conflicts and
negotiations, which occurred during and after the end of dictatorships,
not necessarily resulting in a complete democracy: the process was slow,
full of tensions, advances and setbacks. The severe economic crisis of
those years, the negative GDP growth in many nations, hyperinflation,
growth in external debt, (in 1984, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil and
Colombia were the 3 largest debtors of the US) the fall in the
industrialization index, were part of the scenario of the
redemocratization process.
From the end of the 1990s, with the
economic and social crises resulting from the neoliberal experiences,
right-wing governments were losing popularity and a sequence of
elections of populist or center-left governments began.
However,
from 2015 this trend began to be modified with the election of a
center-right government in Argentina and the defeat of the left
Situationist party in Venezuela in the country's legislative elections.
In 2016, leftist Bolivian President Evo Morales was defeated in a
referendum that would allow him to run for a fourth term. Also in 2016
was elected in Peru Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, center-right and occurred the
impeachment of Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff, ending 13 years of
dominance of the left in Brazil.
South America occupies an area of 17 819 100 km2, is located at 60º
00' 00" west longitude of the Greenwich Meridian and 20º 00' 00" south
latitude of the equator and with time zones -6, -5, -4, -3 and -2 hours
in relation to World Time GMT. Four-fifths of the continent lies below
the equator. On planet Earth, the continent is part of the Pan American
continent. It is washed by the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and Pacific
Ocean.
The subcontinent is cut by imaginary lines. The first is
known as the Equator line that passes through the countries Ecuador,
Colombia and Brazil, corresponding to a cut perpendicular to the axis of
rotation of the Earth, dividing the planet in half and achieving two
symmetrical halves. The second line is known as the Tropic of Capricorn,
which cuts Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Chile, corresponding to the
southernmost point of the planet where it is possible to see the sun at
the highest point in the sky, from this line who is further south never
sees the sun to pin.
On the continent, there are quite different
types of Environment. To the West is the extensive Andes mountain range,
which reaches up to 6 700 m in altitude at some points. The North is
almost completely taken over by the dense and humid Amazon rainforest.
In the central region of the continent, flooded areas predominate, which
include the Brazilian Pantanal and the Bolivian Chaco. Further south
there are Plains and savannahs. On the east coast, the original coastal
forest gave way to industrial and agricultural occupation.
The
most important hydrographic systems in South America — that of the
Amazon (the vastest), of the Orinoco and of the Paraná-Rio De La Plata —
have most of their drainage basins in the plain. The three systems
together drain an area of about 9,583,000 km2. Most of the lakes in
South America are located in the Andes or along its foothills. Among the
Andean lakes, Titicaca and Poopó stand out. The most important lake
formation in the North is Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela, and on the
eastern coast is lagoa dos Patos in Brazil.
Originally linked to Africa, with which it composed the continent of
Gonduana, South America was represented, basically, by three crystalline
masses: the Brazilian Shield, the Guianan shield and the Patagonian
shield. The Brazilian and Guianan Shields show traces of ancient,
Precambrian and pre-Devonian folding, the same occurring in the
Cretaceous with the Patagonian shield. In the Cretaceous, when the
disconnection of the African block from the Brazilian seems to have
begun, the accumulated sedimentary layers folded, giving rise to the
Andes mountain range, already in the tertiary. Once formed, the
regression of the seas that covered the lower parts of the shields or
between these and the Andes occurred almost simultaneously.
With
respect to the Amazon basin, the lifting of the Andean block blocked the
flow of waters to the West and, with the increase in sedimentation, the
basin acquired a lagoon aspect. The evolution of the sedimentation of
the Orinoco basin did not have a very different sequence from the Amazon
basin.
As for the Pampa plain, since, it seems, sedimentation,
until the end of the Mesozoic, occurred in a marine environment or in a
set of large lagoons. But in the tertiary, with the formation of the
Andes, the sea arm that separated the Patagonian shield from the
Brazilian regressed. On the other hand, in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic,
the sediments came from the crystalline areas of the uplifted areas of
the North (Brazilian plateau) or the South (Patagonian shield), while in
the tertiary The Plain also began to receive the sediments of the Andes.
The relief of this area has its own characteristics. The Amazon plain is
an immense funnel that gently descends towards the Atlantic from the
Andean foothills. In the Amazon plain, there is the largest hydrographic
network in the world, with an area of about 7 000 000 km2.
To the
north of the Amazon plain, stretching for almost 500 000 km2, the
Orinoco basin arises. The Orinoco plain is continued southward through
the plains of Beni, Mojos, Guarayos and Chiquitos. To the south of
Bolivia, the Chaco begins. To the south of the Chaco extend the pampas,
where they have formed basins without runoff to the sea. To the
northwest of the province of Buenos Aires rise the pampian mountains.
The Serra de Famatina (about 6 000 m) is the highest of this group,
where other mountains also stand out.
Different is the general
morphological aspect of the region located to the east of the
aforementioned Plains, forming the second important relief strip of
South America. This is the Brazilian plateau and its extension to the
north, the Guiana plateau. The latter extends along the Brazilian border
with the Guianas and Venezuela. The plateau escarpment on the south side
descends steeply. To the north, towards the Orinoco plain, its slopes
are softer. After the interruption produced by the plain, the planaltine
area continues to the South, constituting the Brazilian plateau, with
about 5 000 000 km2.
Interrupted further south by the pampian
deposits, the planaltine forms reappear south of the Colorado River
(Argentina), constituting the Patagonian plateau. Despite the dominance
of continental formations, there are signs of marine transgression on
the coast. The current surface appears to correspond to a peneplain, the
formation of which dates from the end of the Pliocene. Later uplift
movements deepened the valleys in the sedimentary mass. The Patagonian
valleys, which as a rule are characterized by a semi-desert topography,
have longitudinal Profiles with a strong slope, wide talvegues
surrounded by high slopes. Because the post-Pliocene uplifts were not
uniform, depressed areas remained.
The west of South America is
occupied by the third great Morpho-structural Strip and that constitutes
the extensive Andes mountain range. In addition to these three
Morpho-structural areas, there is a great morphological contrast between
the Atlantic Coast (16,000 km long) and the Pacific Coast (9,000 km
long). The Atlantic Coast is, in general, low, of weak slope, Sandy or
made up of fluvial deposits and boasts a wide continental Shelf. The
Rivers played an important role in the configuration of the coast, of
much of the islands of the mouth of the Amazon and the Paraná delta. But
marine erosion and epirogenic movements were also important.
The
high altitudes of the Pacific coasts oppose immense underwater depths,
there is almost no continental shelf. The only more rugged area is the
one to the south, where Islands and archipelagos appear, such as that of
Chonos, Madre de Dios, Reina Adelaide, as well as the island of Tierra
del Fuego, separated from the mainland by the Strait of Magellan.
Thousands of square kilometers of dark soil, of wind and alluvial
origin, occur in the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, where some of the
best land in the world is found. Small areas of good soils also appear
in the Andean valleys and the West Coast, especially in the longitudinal
Valley of Chile, in the Ecuadorian plain of Guayas, and in the Colombian
Valley of Cauca. Excellent are also the purple lands of the Paraná Basin
in Brazil, originated from the breakdown of basaltic outcrops and
currently conducive to coffee culture, only finding rival in the
volcanic soils of the Colombian Andes. The lands of the Amazon basin in
general are poor; there are fertile soils in small areas of alluvial
land, however subject to flooding. Infertility and high acidity make
most of the land in the tropical lowland bad for agriculture.
Traditionally, South America also includes some of the neighboring
islands. Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Trinidad and Tobago and the Federal
dependencies of Venezuela lie on the continental shelf of South America
and are often considered part of the continent. Geopolitically, the
island states and overseas territories of the Caribbean are usually
grouped as a part or subregion of North America, since they are further
apart on the Caribbean Plate, although San Andres and Providencia are
politically part of Colombia and Bird Island is controlled by Venezuela.
Other islands that are included in South America are the Galapagos
Islands that belong to Ecuador and Easter Island (in Oceania but
belonging to Chile), Robinson Crusoe Island, Chiloé (Chile) and Tierra
del Fuego. In the Atlantic, Brazil owns Fernando de Noronha, Trindade
and Martim Vaz and the archipelago of São Pedro and São Paulo, while the
Falkland Islands are ruled by the United Kingdom, whose sovereignty over
the islands is disputed by Argentina. The South Georgia and the South
Sandwich Islands may be associated with South America or Antarctica.
The distribution of average temperatures in the region presents a
constant regularity from the 30 of south latitude, when the isotherms
tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude.
In temperate latitudes, winters are milder and summers warmer than
in North America. Due to the fact that its most extensive part of the
continent is located in the equatorial zone, the region has more areas
of Equatorial plains than any other region.
The average annual
temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around 27 °C, with low
thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between Lake Maracaibo and
the mouth of the Orinoco, an equatorial climate of the Congolese type
predominates, which also encompasses parts of the Brazilian territory.
The center-east of the Brazilian Plateau has a humid and hot
tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampa
have a humid subtropical climate with dry winters and humid summers of
the Chinese Type, while the western and Eastern Ranges have a
subtropical climate of the Dinaric type. At the highest points of the
Andean region, climates are cooler of the type that occurs at the
highest points of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean highlands, the
warm climate predominates, although softened by the altitude, while in
the coastal strip, an equatorial climate of the Guinean type is
recorded. From this point to the north of the Chilean coast appear,
successively, Oceanic Mediterranean climate, temperate of the Breton
type and, already in Tierra del Fuego, cold climate of the Siberian
type.
The distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of
winds and air masses. In most of the tropical region east of the Andes,
winds blowing from the Northeast, East, and Southeast carry moisture
from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. In the Orinoco Plains and
the Guiana plateau, rainfall ranges from moderate to high. The Colombian
Pacific Coast and northern Ecuador are quite rainy regions. The Atacama
Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the
world. The central and southern stretches of Chile are subject to
cyclones, and most of Argentine Patagonia is desert. In the pampas of
Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with
rainfall well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions
of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of
Paraguay. On the coast of the semiarid Brazilian northeast the rains are
linked to a monsoon regime.
Important factors in determining
climates are sea currents, such as the Humboldt Current and the
Falklands current. The equatorial Current of the South Atlantic meets
the coast of the Northeast and there divides into two others: the Brazil
current and a Coastal Current that flows northwest towards the Antilles,
where there it changes to the Northeast thus forming the most important
and famous ocean current in the world, the Gulf Stream.
Vegetation cover is complex, especially on plateaus and in areas
where differences in rainfall occur. Humid tropical forests are quite
extensive, covering the Amazon basin. A semicircular zone of temperate
Araucaria forests covers part of the southern Brazilian plateau, while
the cold forest extends over the south-central Chilean Andes, and
discontinuous tropical forests comprise the Chaco region. There are vast
areas of fields and savannahs. In the Brazilian northeast, under a
semi-arid climate, the caatinga appears and, corresponding to the
tropical climate, the Cerrado of central Brazil extends. The páramos,
steppe vegetation of altitude, cover large portions of the inter-Andean
plateaus of Ecuador and northern Peru, while the pampas have the same
vegetation. And the desert vegetation of the punas, predominates in a
wide strip of the Pacific coast, in south-central Peru, northern Chile
and northeastern Argentina.
The animals native to South America
belong, for the most part, to the so-called Neotropic domain of
zoogeography. When the Americas were joined by the Isthmus of Panama,
terrestrial and freshwater fauna migrated from North to South and vice
versa. This was the so-called Great American Interchange, which reached
its apex around three million years ago. The fauna of tropical forests
is characterized by an abundance of monkeys, tapirs, rodents and
reptiles. The most characteristic members of the Amazonian fauna are the
Manatee, aquatic and vegetarian mammal, and the piranha. The Andes
region, the cold steppes and deserts of Patagonia have a very peculiar
fauna, such as the four members of the American branch of camelids
(guanaco, llama, alpaca and vicuna). The Prairies located in the south
of the Amazon have a characteristically transitional fauna. In this area
tropical species occur, at the same time as animals from colder regions.
The population of South America is not evenly distributed, with
rarefied areas, along with others of relatively high density. Some
physical and human factors contribute to this. Among the causes of
demographic rarefaction, the following stand out: the existence of
desert regions, such as Patagonia, the dry Pampas, the Atacama and the
Sechura; the zones of equatorial forests, such as the Amazon; the areas
of fields, where extensive cattle breeding contributes to demographic
scarcity.
As for the factors that have determined higher
concentrations of population, the following stand out: the
well-sheltered coastal strips endowed with natural harbors; the coasts
with a relatively benign climate; the valleys of some navigable rivers,
such as the Amazon, Orinoco, Cauca, Paraná; and the naturally fertile
regions, where an appropriate agricultural activity was developed, such
as the Rio-São Paulo axis, in Brazil, the province of Buenos Aires, in
Argentina, and the central Valley of Chile.
The population of
South America had the highest growth rate in the world between 1920 and
1960. The decline in mortality, largely determined by the rise in public
hygiene standards, was the fundamental cause of this demographic
expansion. Another factor contributing to this increase was immigration.
Since 1800, about 12 million immigrants have arrived in the region. Of
this total, about 4 million came from Spain, 4 million from Italy, 2
million from Portugal and the rest from Germany, Poland, Syria, Japan,
China and other countries.
Portuguese and Spanish are the most widely spoken languages in South
America, a geographical region that is part of the great cultural
region, called Latin America.
Portuguese is the official language
of Brazil, which has almost 50% of the South American population.
Spanish is the official language of most countries on the continent.
There is also the presence of other languages, such as Dutch (official
language of Suriname), English (official language of Guyana), French
(official language of French Guiana) in addition to several indigenous
languages.
Indigenous languages of South America include Quechua
in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; guarani in Paraguay and somewhat in
Bolivia; Aymara in Bolivia and Peru; and Mapudungun is spoken in certain
regions of southern Chile, and more rarely, in Argentina. At least three
of these indigenous languages (Quechua, Aymara, and guarani) are
recognized along with Spanish as official languages in their countries.
In Brazil, more than 150 indigenous languages are spoken.
Other
languages found in South America include hindi and Indonesian in
Suriname; Italian in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Chile;
and German in some regions of Argentina, Chile, Venezuela, and Paraguay.
German is also spoken in some regions of southern Brazil, Hunsrückisch
is the most widely spoken German dialect in the country. Among other
German dialects, a Brazilian form of Pomeranian is also represented.
In most of the countries of the continent, the upper classes are
made up of educated people; they regularly study English, French, German
or Italian. In these areas where tourism is significant, English and
other European languages are spoken. There are small areas located in
the extreme south of Brazil that speak Spanish, due to the proximity to
Uruguay.
The primitive populations of South America, the Amerindians, with
Mongoloid anthropological characters, were distributed, in the colonial
period, in groups. The methods of reduction and conquest varied,
according to the stage of civilization of the natives. In the region
dominated by the Portuguese, the colonizers enslaved the Indians
scattered throughout the interior, leading to lands conducive to
colonization. For this purpose, search expeditions were organized to the
Indian slaves, as flags. This work of conquest was accompanied by the
religious missions, which also sought to "reduce" the Gentiles and make
them produce, but through other methods and with the aim of
Christianization. With this work of conquest came to join the indigenous
another contingent, the White, Iberian mainly. In the first phase, the
Conqueror interested the Amerindian, especially as a labor force. It was
not long, however, before Europeans, especially the Portuguese, became
disillusioned with the efficiency of the enslaved Amerindian. As the
indigenous did not adapt well to agriculture, the colonizers began to
import, like slaves, black Africans, who came to constitute the third
important element in the ethnic formation of the South American
populations. It is from the end of the nineteenth century, however, that
we see the mass entry of European immigrants in several Latin American
countries. This immigration was mainly concentrated in Argentina, Chile,
Uruguay and Brazil. It is the Italians who arrive in greater numbers,
even surpassing the Spanish and Portuguese.
For the ethnic
formation of the South American population, three ethnicities
predominated: Indians, whites and blacks. In many countries, mestizos of
Spaniards with Indigenous people predominate, as is the case in
Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay and Venezuela. In only two countries are
Indigenous Peoples a majority: in Peru and Bolivia. Large populations of
African descent are found in Brazil and Colombia.
The countries
with strong European ancestry are Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, and Brazil.
The first two countries have their population derived from Spanish and
Italian immigrants and, in the case of Southern and Southeastern
Southern Brazil (mainly São Paulo), derived from Portuguese, Italian,
German and Spanish immigrants. Brazil is the country with the largest
population of people of African descent outside of Africa in the world,
with a population of people of African descent greater than the sum of
all other South American countries combined.
Chile received a
large wave of European immigrants, mainly in the north, south and Coast.
Throughout the eighteenth and early twentieth centuries. European
immigrants who arrived in Chile are mostly Spanish, German, English
(including Scottish and Irish), Italian, French, Austrian, Dutch, Swiss,
Scandinavian, Portuguese, Greek and Croatian. The largest ethnic group
that makes up the Chilean population came from Spain and the Basque
Country, to the south of France. Estimates of descendants of Basques in
Chile range from 10% (1,600,000) to 27% (4,500,000). 1848 was a year of
great immigration of Germans and French, the immigration of Germans was
sponsored by the Chilean government for colonization purposes to the
southern regions of the country. These Germans (also Swiss and
Austrians), significantly attracted by the natural composition of the
provinces of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue were placed on land given
by the Chilean government to populate the region. Because Southern Chile
was practically uninhabited, the influence of this German immigration
was very strong, comparable to Latin America only with German
immigration from southern Brazil. There are also a large number of
Germans who arrived in Chile after World War I and II, especially in the
South (Punta Arenas, Puerto Varas, Frutillar, Puerto Montt, Temuco, etc.
The German embassy in Chile estimates that between 500,000 and 600,000
Chileans are of German origin. In addition, it is estimated that about
5% of the Chilean population is descended from immigrants of Asian
origin, mainly from the Middle East (that is, Palestinians, Syrians,
Lebanese and Armenians), there are about 800 000 people. Importantly,
Israelis, both Jews and non-Jewish citizens of the nation of Israel can
be included. Chile is home to a large population of mainly Christian
immigrants from the Middle East. About 500,000 descendants of
Palestinians are believed to reside in Chile. Other historically
significant immigrant groups are: the Croats, whose number of
descendants is estimated at 380,000 people, equivalent to 2.4% of the
population. However, other sources say that 4.6% of Chile's population
may have some Croatian ancestry. In addition, more than 700,000 Chileans
of British origin (England, Wales and Scotland), which corresponds to
4.5% of the population. Chileans of Greek descent are estimated between
90 000 and 120 000 people, most of them live in Santiago or Antofagasta,
Chile is one of the five countries with the most descendants of Greeks
in the world. The descendants of Swiss add up to the number 90 000, it
is also estimated that about 5% of the Chilean population has some
French ancestry.
The Brazilian population is formed mainly by
descendants of Indigenous Peoples, Portuguese settlers, African slaves
and European immigrants. Brazilians ("whites"," browns "and" blacks"),
in general, have European, African and Indigenous ancestry. The European
being important especially in the "whites"and " Browns". "African"
ancestry is higher among "blacks". Indigenous ancestry is present in all
regions, in "brancos", "pardos" and "negros" Brazilians, although
tending to a lesser degree. According to a 2008 autosomal DNA study
conducted by the University of Brasilia (UnB), with "whites", "browns"
and "blacks", European ancestry is the predominant one in all regions of
Brazil, accounting for 65.90% of the population's Heritage, followed by
a large African contribution (24.80%) and a smaller Indigenous
contribution (9.3%). According to the autosomal study of 2011, with
approximately 1,000 samples of "white", "brown" and "black" Brazilians,
carried out by the Brazilian geneticist Sérgio Pena, the European
component is predominant in the population of Brazil, in all national
regions, with African and Indigenous contributions. According to this
study, European ancestry accounts for 70% of the heritage of the
Brazilian population. This study was based on blood donors, and most
blood donors in Brazil come from the lowest classes (in addition to
nurses and other people who work in public health entities, thus
representing the Brazilian population). This study found that Brazilians
from different regions are genetically much more homogeneous than
expected, as a consequence of the European predominance (which had
already been shown by several other autosomal genetic studies, as can be
seen below). "By the criteria of color and race used in the census to
date, we had the vision of Brazil as a heterogeneous mosaic, as if the
South and the North were home to two different peoples,” comments the
geneticist. “The study shows that Brazil is a much more integrated
country than we thought."Brazilian homogeneity is therefore much higher
between regions than within them, which values individual heterogeneity.
This conclusion of the work indicates that characteristics such as skin
color are, in fact, arbitrary to categorize the population. According to
an autosomal genetic study done in 2010 by the Catholic University of
Brasilia, published in the American Journal of Human Biology, European
genetic inheritance is the predominant one in Brazil, accounting for
between 75% and 80% total, "whites", "browns" and "blacks" included. The
results also showed that, in Brazil, indicators of physical appearance,
such as skin, eye and hair color, have relatively little relation to
each person's ancestry (that is, a person's phenotype does not clearly
indicate their genotype). This study was carried out based on samples of
free paternity tests, as exposed by the researchers: "the paternity
tests were free, the population samples involve people of variable
socioeconomic profile, although probably with a bias towards the
'Brown'Group". According to another study, from 2009, Brazilians, as a
whole, and from all regions, and regardless of appearance or
classification by the census, are much closer to Europeans than to
mestizos from Mexico, and to Africans, from a genetic point of view.
In Colombia, the composition of the population found according to a
study was 50.0% European contribution, 42.0% Indigenous contribution and
8.0% African contribution. In Ecuador it was found 53.9% European
contribution, 38.8% Indigenous contribution and 7.3% African
contribution. In Venezuela it was found 58.2% European contribution,
21.8% Indigenous contribution and 20% African contribution. In
Argentina, European heritage is the predominant, but with significant
Indigenous heritage, and presence of African contribution as well. An
autosomal genetic study conducted in 2009 revealed that the composition
of Argentina is 78.50% European, 17.30% Indigenous, and 4.20% African.
Studies of Chilean population genetics using "mitochondrial DNA" and the
results of the Y chromosome test show the following: the European
component is predominant in the Chilean upper class, the middle class,
from 76.8% -72% to 3% of European components and 27.7% -23.2% of
indigenous peoples, and the lower classes to 65.1% -62.9% European
component and 37.1% -35% mixture of Indigenous Peoples. A 2009 genetic
study, published in the American Journal of Human Biology, revealed that
Uruguay's genetic makeup is primarily European, but with Indigenous
contribution (ranging from 1% to 20% in different parts of the country)
and significant African contribution (7% to 15% in different parts of
the country). The Indigenous contribution in Uruguay has been estimated
at 10%, on average, for the entire population. This figure rises to 20%
in the Department of Tacuarembó, and drops to 2% in Montevideo.
Indigenous mitochondrial DNA reaches 62% in Tacuarembó. A 2006 genetic
study found the following results for the Cerro Largo population:
European contribution of 82%, Indigenous contribution of 8%, and African
contribution of 10%. This was the result for autosomal DNA, which is
inherited from both father and mother and allows inferring the entire
ancestry of an individual. In the maternal line, mitochondrial DNA, the
results found for Cerro Largo were: European contribution of 49%,
Indigenous contribution of 30%, and African contribution of 21%.
Several institutions have been created among South American countries
for the purpose of regional integration. The Latin American Integration
Association (ALADI), which includes Central and North American
countries, was created in 1980 to promote the economic and social
development of the region, in a gradual and progressive way, for the
establishment of a Latin American Common Market. Members of the
association are Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba,
Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.
Nicaragua is in the process of joining. Together they add up to an area
of twenty million km2, about five hundred and thirty million inhabitants
and a GDP of more than 5 trillion dollars.
The Southern Common
Market (Mercosur) was created in 1991 by the founding countries Brazil,
Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, to promote two fundamental pillars of
regional integration: democracy and economic development. Venezuela
started the accession process in 2012 as a state party, but has been
suspended since 2016, and Bolivia is in the accession process. In
addition to the member countries, all other South American countries are
associated States of Mercosur. The bloc can be characterized as a
customs union in the consolidation phase, favoring the circulation of
production factors, with the adoption of a common tariff policy in
relation to third countries. The members of Mercosur (Brazil, Argentina,
Paraguay and Uruguay, the founding countries, and Venezuela) cover
approximately 72% of the territory of South America; 70% of the South
American population and 77% of the GDP of South America in 2012,
according to World Bank data. If taken together, Mercosur would be the
fifth largest economy in the world.
The community of Latin
American and Caribbean States (CELAC), created in 2011, heir to the
summits of Heads of State and Government of Latin America and the
Caribbean (CALC), includes thirty-three countries and aims at
development cooperation and political consultation.
The Pacific
Alliance, which includes Central and North American countries, was
created in 2012 by the founding countries Chile, Colombia, Mexico and
Peru, with Costa Rica joining the group in 2013. It aims to formalise
Free Trade Agreements for goods and services, free movement of persons,
financial and capital integration and physical integration. In numbers,
these countries together account for about 35% of Latin America'S GDP
and 55% of its total exports.
The Organization of American States
(OAS) was created in 1948, has thirty-five member states and aims to
build peace and justice in the American continent, in addition to
promoting solidarity and mutual cooperation among the states of the
region, defending the sovereignty, integrity of the territory and the
independence of its members.
The Union of South American nations
(UNASUR), created in 2008, came to include all twelve countries of South
America, with the aim of building a space for the integration of South
American peoples. UNASUR provided for cooperation among member states in
various areas, including politics, physical integration, energy, health
and defense. As of April 2018, the governments of Brazil, Argentina,
Chile, Colombia, Paraguay and Peru jointly decided to suspend their
participation in the organization, due to a crisis that began in 2017,
when there was no consensus to elect a new secretary general. In March
2019, Ecuador, where the organization's headquarters is located, in
addition to announcing its definitive departure, requested the return of
the headquarters building to the country's government. The UNASUR
parliament, based in Bolivia, has never elected representatives. On 22
March 2019, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana,
Paraguay and Peru signed an agreement to constitute the forum for the
progress of South America (PROSUR), replacing UNASUR. The new forum will
have a light and flexible structure, with clear operating rules, defense
of democracy and respect for Human Rights.
South America experienced, from 1930, a remarkable growth and
diversification in most economic sectors. Most agricultural and
livestock products are destined for local consumption and the domestic
market. However, the export of agricultural products is fundamental to
the balance of the trade balance of most countries.
The main
agricultural crops are precisely those for export, such as soybeans and
wheat. The production of basic foods such as vegetables, corn or beans
is large, but aimed at domestic consumption. Cattle breeding for meat
exports is important in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Colombia. In
tropical regions the most important crops are coffee, cocoa and bananas,
especially in Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador. By tradition, the countries
producing sugar for export are: Peru, Guyana and Suriname, and in
Brazil, sugar cane is also used for the manufacture of fuel alcohol. On
the coast of Peru, Northeast and southern Brazil, cotton is grown. Fifty
percent of the South American surface is covered by forests, but the
timber industries are small and directed to domestic markets. In recent
years, however, transnational companies have been settling in the Amazon
to exploit Noble Woods destined for export. The Pacific coastal waters
of South America are the most important for commercial fishing. The
catch of anchovies reaches thousands of tons, and tuna is also abundant,
of which Peru is a major exporter. The capture of crustaceans is
notable, particularly in northeastern Brazil and Chile.
Only
Brazil and Argentina are part of the G20 (industrial countries), while
only Brazil is part of the G8+5 (the most powerful and influential
nations on the planet). In the tourism sector, a series of negotiations
began in 2005 with the aim of promoting tourism and increasing air
connections within the region. Punta del Este, Florianópolis and Mar del
Plata are among the main resorts in South America.
The majority of South Americans live near the coast and therefore
most of the areas where intensive land use is made are located in this
peripheral strip. Less than 5% of the land in the region is cultivated,
19% is intended for pastures, and 47% is occupied by forests. The
proportion of cultivated land varies from 12% in Uruguay to 1% in
Paraguay and 0.03% in French Guiana.
Despite the efforts that
have been made towards industrialization, South America is still a
region where agricultural activities play a fundamental role. The most
important product of the region is coffee, grown mainly in the purple
lands of the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and São
Paulo and in the Western Cordillera of Colombia, constituting a great
source of foreign exchange from these countries. South America produces
about half of the world's coffee: Brazil, Colombia and Peru are among
the 10 largest producers on the planet. The main areas of maize
cultivation are in the interior of the Brazilian plateau, especially in
its southeastern portion, and in the lands bordering the triticultural
belt of the Argentine pampas. Brazil and Argentina are among the 5
largest producers in the world, and Paraguay is entering the list of the
20 largest. The banana is intensively cultivated around the Gulf of
Guayaquil and callejón of Ecuador (first exporter of South America), in
the region of the Lower Magdalena River and in the hot and humid
lowlands of southern Brazil. South America produces about 20% of the
world's bananas. Colombia, Ecuador and Brazil are among the 10 largest
producers in the world, and Peru among the 20 largest. Wheat production
is concentrated almost entirely in the large areas of the humid Pampas
and in southern Brazil; Argentina is the largest producer in South
America, being among the 15 largest in the world. The culture of cocoa
assumes great importance in the Ecuadorian callejón, around Lake
Maracaibo, in Venezuela, and especially in the south of the state of
Bahia and in the state of Pará, in Brazil, which is the first South
American producer. Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Colombia are among the
world's 10 largest cocoa producers. A fact to highlight in Brazilian
agriculture in the 1970s was the enormous expansion of soybeans, which
became a major export producer in the country. Today South America
produces half of the world's soybeans, and Brazil has become the world's
largest producer, with Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia also among the
top 10 producers.
Commercial fibers, such as sisal and jute, are
found in South America some large producers, such as Colombia, Ecuador
and Brazil, with their plantations in the Amazon and the Northeast.
Brazil is also the main cotton producer on the continent and one of the
5 largest in the world, thanks to its vast plantations in Mato Grosso
and the Northeast, as well as castor bean, peanut (where it is one of
the 15 largest producers in the world) and cassava (where it is one of
the 5 largest producers in the world). Brazil also holds the primacy in
the global cultivation of sugarcane, with its immense plantations in the
Southeast, Midwest, Northeast and Paraná: South America produces half of
the world's sugarcane, with Colombia among the 10 largest producers and
Argentina, Peru and Bolivia among the 20 largest. Although the
cultivation of tobacco has declined worldwide over the last decades,
Brazil remains the world's second largest producer and largest exporter
of the product; the largest smoking areas are in Rio Grande do Sul.
Argentina is also one of the world's 10 largest tobacco producers.
Babassuais and carnaubais are also industrializable plants, well used by
Brazil, whose main producing areas are the northeastern states. Another
crop that has grown a lot in recent decades has been the oil palm, for
the production of palm oil: Colombia today is one of the 5 largest
producers in the world, and Ecuador, one of the 10 largest. Finally,
fruits have a very important place in the agricultural economy of South
American countries; Brazil is the world's largest producer of Orange,
guarana and açaí, is one of the world's 5 largest producers of papaya,
pineapple, banana, coconut, watermelon and lemon, and is one of the
world's 10 largest producers of cashew, avocado, Persimmon, mango and
guava. Argentina is one of the world's 5 largest producers of lemon and
pear, one of the world's 10 largest producers of grapes and one of the
world's 15 largest producers of grapefruit. Chile is one of the world's
top 5 Cherry and cranberry producers and one of the world's top 10
grape, apple, kiwi, peach and plum producers, with a focus on exporting
high-value fruits. Colombia is one of the world's 5 largest avocado
producers and one of the world's 10 largest banana and pineapple
producers. Peru is one of the 5 largest avocado and blueberry producers
and one of the 15 largest pineapple producers in the world.
South
American agriculture, however, does not employ uniform systems or
techniques for the same product. Productivity not only varies from
country to country but also has huge regional differences within each
country. Until approximately 1930, planting techniques and methods had a
high index of archaism, characterized by the absence of mechanization
and fertilization, inadequate soil preparation, inefficiency in
combating pests, etc. Thus, only since 1930 have these problems been
addressed, even trying to recover land exhausted by predatory use.
It is also from the countryside that comes a source of wealth of
some South American countries: livestock. Due to a series of factors,
such as the rugged terrain and the scarcity of useful space, the Andean
countries do not stand out for their herds; in general, there is only
the breeding of small animals (pigs, goats and sheep) or species that
best adapt to geographical conditions, such as the alpaca and llama. The
largest cattle herds belong to Brazil and Argentina (which are among the
5 largest beef producers in the world), and then to Colombia and
Uruguay; in the production of chicken meat, Brazil is the 2nd largest
producer and largest exporter in the world; Argentina is among the 15
largest producers in the world, and Peru and Colombia among the 20
largest. South America produces about 20% of the world's beef and
chicken. Brazil is also one of the 5 largest pork producers in the
world. In honey production, Argentina is among the 5 largest producers
in the world and Brazil among the 15 largest. In terms of cow's milk
production, Brazil is one of the 5 largest producers in the world and
Argentina is among the 20 largest. Argentina is the largest wool
producer in South America and one of the 10 largest in the world.
Equally important are the Brazilian herds of goats and Moors.
The
South American subsoil is rich in oil. About 25% of the total area of
the region contains sedimentary basins in which oil strata can occur.
But, until 1965, most of the producing fields were located in the
structural basins flanked by the Andes Mountains. Venezuela, with an
estimated reserve of 17 billion barrels, has the richest oil area in
South America, the second in the Western Hemisphere and the seventh in
the world, surpassed only by the United States, Russia, Iraq, Iran,
Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Other South American countries that have large
reserves are Argentina, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil. Natural gas
production is commonly associated with that of petroleum, but its
commercial use has been limited by the distance of producing fields from
major consumption centers.
Unlike in North America, South
American coal resources are scarce. Although there are deposits in
several areas of the Andes, as well as in southern Brazil, only three
countries — Colombia, Chile and Brazil — have reasonable production.
Brazilian coal contains high ash content, therefore requiring the
addition of imported coal in order to be conveniently used in industry.
South America is rich in iron ore, which occurs in immense
quantities, especially in the Guiana plateau and the Brazilian escudo.
Numerous and extensive deposits have been discovered almost in the prime
of the Earth, and can be mined directly and at low cost. The main
Venezuelan iron debris is located near the Caroni River, a Southern
tributary of the Orinoco, and the development of its exploitation has
been facilitated by the existence of cheap means of river transport. In
Brazil, which has one of the largest iron ore reserves in the world,
exploitation conditions are less favorable, since most of the mines are
located in the interior of the state of Minas Gerais, from where the ore
is transported by rail to the coastal runoff ports. Another important
mineral resource of South America is copper, which is found mainly in
the geologically recent lands of the Central Andes in Chile and Peru.
Only the Copper Mines of North America and Central Africa rival those of
Chile. South America produces half of the world's copper, with Chile and
Peru being among the largest producers, and Brazil also having
considerable output.
Most of the tin reserves of the Western
Hemisphere are located on the territory of Bolivia. The mines are
located at high altitudes in the Andes, and some of them are old silver
deposits exhausted in colonial times. It is estimated that the deposits
of the Bolivian Andes contain one third of all tin in the world. Brazil
has huge reserves of manganese, and one of the largest deposits in the
world is located in the southwest of the state of Mato Grosso. A smaller
but more accessible deposit is explored in the state of Amapá. Among
other abundant ores in South America, bauxite (southern French Guiana,
Suriname and extreme northern Brazil), platinum (Colombia), silver (Peru
and Bolivia), nitrate (Chile), lead, zinc, bismuth and antimony
(Bolivia), vanadium and lead (Peru), iodine and sulfur (Chile), sea
salt, asbestos, tungsten, titanium and niobium in (Brazil) stand out.
The plant extractive activity includes the use of forest areas in
southern Brazil, where eucalyptus and native Araucaria plantations
produce a large amount of wood, as well as the exploitation of mahogany
and other trees in scattered regions of this country. Logging is also an
important economic activity in certain regions of Paraguay, Chile and
Bolivia. In this sector, it is also necessary to highlight the use of
medicinal plants and oilseeds through the collection process.
The most industrialized countries in South America are Brazil,
Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela and Uruguay respectively. These
countries alone account for more than 75% of the region's economy and
add up to a GDP of more than $ 2.9 trillion.
Industries in South
America began to take a toll on the region's economies from the 1930s,
when the Great Depression in the United States and other countries of
the world boosted industrial production from the subcontinent. From this
period the region left the agricultural face behind and began to obtain
high rates of economic growth that were maintained until the beginning
of the 1990s when they slowed down due to political instabilities,
economic crises and neoliberal policies.
Since the end of the
economic crisis of Brazil and Argentina that occurred in the period from
1998 to 2002, and which caused economic recession, increased
unemployment and falling income of the population, the industrial and
service sectors have been recovering rapidly, especially in Chile,
Argentina, and Brazil that grow at an average of 5% per year. All of
South America after this period has been recovering fast and showing
good signs of economic stability, with controlled inflation and exchange
rate, continuous growth, decrease in social inequality and unemployment,
factors that favor the industry.
The main industries are:
electronics, textile, food, automobile, metallurgical, aviation, naval,
clothing, beverage, steel, tobacco, timber, chemical, among others.
Exports reach almost 400 billion dollars annually, with Brazil
accounting for half of this.
Brazil is the industrial leader in
South America. In the food industry, Brazil was the world's second
largest exporter of processed foods in 2019. In 2016, the country was
the 2nd pulp producer in the world and the 8th paper producer. In the
footwear sector, in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers. In
2019, the country was the 8th vehicle producer and the 9th steel
producer in the world. In 2018, the Brazilian chemical industry ranked
8th worldwide. In the textile industry, Brazil, although it was among
the 5 largest producers in the world in 2013, was poorly integrated into
World Trade. In the aviation sector, Brazil has Embraer, the third
largest aircraft manufacturer in the world, behind only Boeing and
Airbus.
Tourism in South America is one of the fastest growing
areas in the South American economy. With the largest tropical forest in
the world (Amazon), the largest river in the world (Amazon), the second
largest mountain range (Andes), isolated oceanic islands (Galapagos,
Easter Island and Fernando de Noronha), paradisiacal beaches (northeast
Brazilian coast), deserts (Atacama), glacial landscapes (Patagonia and
Tierra del Fuego), the highest waterfall in the world (Salto Angel, with
979 meters of fall, in Venezuela) and the falls with the largest volume
of water (Iguazu Falls), among many other natural and man-made monuments
that attract tourists from all over the world.
Due to the diversity of topography and rainfall conditions, the water
resources of the region vary enormously in different areas. In the
Andes, the possibilities of navigation are limited, except for the
Magdalena River, Lake Titicaca and the lakes of the southern regions of
Chile and Argentina. Irrigation is an important factor for agriculture
from northwestern Peru to Patagonia. Less than 10% of the known
electrical potential of the Andes had been harnessed by the mid-1960s.
The Brazilian escudo has a hydroelectric potential much higher than
that of the Andean region and its possibilities of exploitation are
greater due to the existence of several large rivers with high banks and
the occurrence of great unevenness, forming immense waterfalls, such as
those of Paulo Afonso, Iguaçu and other smaller ones. The Amazon river
system has about 13 000 km of waterways, but its possibilities for
hydroelectric use are still unknown.
In oil production, Brazil
was the world's 10th largest oil producer in 2019, with 2.8 million
barrels/day. Colombia came in 22nd place with 886 thousand barrels/day,
Venezuela in 23rd place with 877 thousand barrels/day, Ecuador in 28th
with 531 thousand barrels/day and Argentina in 29th with 507 thousand
barrels / day. Since Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export
most of their output, they are part of OPEC. Venezuela recorded a sharp
drop in production after 2015 (where it produced 2,5 million
barrels/day), falling in 2016 to 2,2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in
2018 to 1,4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of
investments.
In natural gas production, in 2018, Argentina
produced 1,524 bcf (billion cubic feet), Venezuela 946, Brazil 877,
Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.
The Brazilian government has
undertaken, over decades, an ambitious program to reduce dependence on
imported oil. Previously, imports accounted for more than 70% of the
country's oil needs, but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in
2006-2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in
2019, with 2.8 million barrels/day. The production manages to meet the
demand of the country. At the beginning of 2020, in the production of
oil and natural gas, the country for the first time exceeded 4 million
barrels of oil equivalent per day. In January of this year, 3.168
million barrels of oil per day and 138.7 million cubic meters of natural
gas were extracted.
Brazil is one of the world's largest
producers of hydropower. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in
operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the
country's power generation. In total electricity generation, in 2019
Brazil reached 170,000 MW of installed capacity, more than 75% from
renewable sources (mostly hydroelectric).
In 2019, it was
estimated that the country would have an estimated wind power generation
potential of around 522 GW (this, only on land, disregarding wind power
plants that can be installed at sea), enough power to meet three times
the country's current demand. In January 2022, according to the ONS, the
total installed capacity of wind power was 21 GW, with an average
capacity factor of 58%. Although the world average wind capacity factor
is 24.7%, there are areas in northeastern Brazil, especially in the
state of Bahia, where some wind farms register an average capacity
factor of more than 60%; the average capacity factor in the Northeast
region is 45% on the coast and 49% inland. In 2019, wind energy
accounted for 9% of the energy generated in the country. In 2021 Brazil
was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21
GW) and the 4th.The country that produced the most wind energy (72 TWh),
behind only China, the USA and Germany.
Nuclear power accounts
for about 4% of Brazil's electricity. The nuclear power generation
monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/a), a
wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear power is produced by two
reactors in Angra. It is located at the Almirante Álvaro Alberto Nuclear
Power Plant (CNAAA), on Itaorna Beach, in Angra dos Reis, Rio de
Janeiro. It consists of two pressurized water reactors, Angra I, with a
capacity of 657 MW, connected to the electricity grid in 1982, and Angra
II, with a capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor,
Angra III, with a capacity of 1,350 MW, is to be completed.
As of
October 2022, according to the ONS, the total installed capacity of
solar PV was 21 GW, with an average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the
most irradiated Brazilian states are MG (Minas Gerais), BA (Bahia) and
GO (Goiás), which currently hold World Records for irradiation. In 2019,
solar energy accounted for 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.
In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed
solar power (13 GW), and the 11th country in the world that produced the
most solar energy (16.8 TWh).
In 2020, Brazil was the 2nd country
in the world in terms of energy generation through biomass (energy
production through solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15.2 GW
installed.
The transport systems of South America are still deficient,
presenting low kilometer densities. The region has about 1 700 000 km of
highways and 100 000 km of Railways, which are concentrated in the
coastal strip, continuing the interior devoid of communication.
Only two railroads are Continental: the Transandina, which connects
Buenos Aires, Argentina to Valparaiso, Chile, and the Brazil-Bolivia
Railroad, which connects the Port of Santos, Brazil and the city of
Santa Cruz De La Sierra, Bolivia. In addition, there is the Pan-American
highway, which crosses the Andean countries from North to South,
although some sections are unfinished.
Two areas of greater
density occur in the railway sector: the platina network, which develops
around the Prata estuary, largely belonging to Argentina, with more than
45,000 km in length; and the southeast Brazil network, which mainly
serves the state of São Paulo, the state of Rio de Janeiro and Minas
Gerais. It is also Brazil and Argentina that stand out in the road
sector. In addition to the Moderna roads that extend through northern
Argentina and Southeast and south Brazil, a vast Road complex aims to
link Brasilia, the federal capital, to the South, Southeast, Northeast
and North regions of Brazil.
South America has one of the largest
bundles of navigable waterways in the world, represented mainly by the
Amazon, Silver, San Francisco and Orinoco Basins, with Brazil having
about 54,000 navigable km, while Argentina has 6,500 km and Venezuela,
1,200 km.
The two main merchant fleets also belong to Brazil and
Argentina. This is followed by Chile, Venezuela, Peru and Colombia. The
largest ports in commercial movement are those of Buenos Aires, Santos,
Rio de Janeiro, Bahía Blanca, Rosario, Valparaiso, Recife, Salvador,
Montevideo, Paranaguá, Rio Grande, Fortaleza, Belém and Maracaibo.
Commercial aviation has found in South America a magnificent field
of expansion, which has one of the largest lines in traffic density in
the world, that of Rio de Janeiro-São Paulo, and large airports, such as
Congonhas, São Paulo International/Guarulhos and Viracopos (São Paulo),
Rio de Janeiro international and Santos Dumont (Rio de Janeiro), Ezeiza
(Buenos Aires), Confins International Airport (Belo Horizonte), Curitiba
International Airport (Curitiba), Brasília, Caracas, Montevideo, Lima,
Bogotá, Recife, Salvador, Salgado Filho International Airport (Porto
Alegre), Fortaleza, Manaus and Belém.
South Americans are culturally rich, due to the historical connection
to Europe, especially Spain and Portugal, and the impact of popular
culture from the United States.
The cultural differences are
considerable and the division of the subcontinent in colonial times
meant that there were two dominant languages, Spanish and Portuguese.
The indigenous culture of pre-Columbian origin had a strong influence in
Peru, Bolivia and some regions of the Amazon.
Due to cultural
differences within national borders, it is possible to find greater
cultural similarity between the inhabitants of border areas than between
them and those within each country. This is due, in part, to the
postcolonial division that accompanied the formation of Independent
States during the nineteenth century.
South American culture is
present in many ways worldwide. So, for example, Andean handicrafts
enjoy considerable demand in different markets, such as European.
The South American nations have a wide variety in music. Some of the
most famous genres include cumbia from Colombia, samba and bossa nova
from Brazil, and tango from Argentina and Uruguay. In the first half of
the twentieth century, tango had great success in Europe and Colombia.
This song was performed in Castilian, but it was not an obstacle to its
diffusion abroad. In South America, musical styles not exclusive to the
subcontinent have developed, such as salsa, which has its "capital" in
Santiago de Cali, Colombia.
In the XXI century occurred in South
America the popularization of reggaeton and funk carioca among young
people and adolescents, both musical genres are criticized by much of
society due to the sexual content in most of its lyrics.
South
American literature has attracted considerable criticism and popular
approval, with authors such as Gabriel García Márquez, Pablo Neruda,
Jorge Luis Borges, and Julio Cortázar.
Because of the wide ethnic
mix in South America, the cuisine has African, Asian, and European
influences. The Brazilian state of Bahia is especially known for the
influence of West African cuisine. Argentines, Chileans and Uruguayans
consume a large amount of wine.
In South America, the most popular sport is football, both in terms
of practitioners and audience. The sport is legally represented by
CONMEBOL, which organizes the main local tournaments between national
teams (Copa América) and between clubs (Copa Libertadores and Copa
Sudamericana). At the level of national teams, it has teams of world
tradition, which together add up to 10 titles of the 22 possible of the
Football World Cup (Brazil with 5, Argentina with 3 and Uruguay with 2).
The first edition of the world's biggest football competition was held
in Uruguay in 1930. The continent hosted the tournament three other
times (1 in Chile, 1 in Argentina and one more in Brazil).
Other
sports that are considered the most popular sport modality in South
American countries are cricket and baseball. Cricket is the most popular
sport in Guyana, a country that together with others in the Caribbean
that were once English colonies, formed the West Indies cricket team,
known in the world as West Indies, winner of two editions of the Cricket
World Cup, the sport's largest competition. As for baseball, it is the
most popular sport in Venezuela, due to the influence of the United
States, having the richest league in the country, forming many players
who end up going to Major League Baseball. Venezuela is a three-time
champion of the defunct Baseball World Cup, ranking in the world top-3,
behind only the United States and Cuba.
Other sports such as
basketball, swimming and volleyball are also popular, and regardless of
the level of popularity, some countries have defined a sport as a
national sport by law. This is the case of Argentina (pato), Colombia
(tejo) and Chile (Chile Rodeo). Some South American countries stand out
worldwide, but individually, in other sports, for example, Argentina is
a power in rugby, polo, field hockey, roller hockey, basketball and
boxing; Brazil in motorsport, volleyball, mixed martial arts, swimming,
judo, handball, futsal and sailing, and Colombia in cycling. The
practice of tennis is extended to Argentina, Chile and Brazil; which
have had champions of Grand Slam tournaments.
In 2016, South America hosted the Summer Olympic Games for the first
time, an event held in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
In
2019, Brazil hosted the Copa America, the country hosted the
championship for the fifth time in history. In addition, it will host in
October and November of the same year the FIFA U-17 World Cup, which was
initially going to be hosted in Peru, but after a last-minute
cancellation since the country did not have enough infrastructure to
hold the championship, Brazil opted to host it.
In July 2019, the
Pan American Games will be held in Lima, Peru. It will be the first time
in its history that the city hosts the Pan American Games, other South
American cities that have already hosted it were: Buenos Aires in 1951,
São Paulo in 1963, Cali in 1971, Caracas in 1983, Mar del Plata in 1995
and Rio de Janeiro in 2007. The 2023 tournament will be held in
Santiago, Chile.