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The Villa of Cicero, also known as Villa di Cicerone, is a significant yet enigmatic suburban Roman villa located just outside the ancient city of Pompeii, near the Herculaneum Gate along the road to Herculaneum. Named after the famed Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero—though there’s no definitive evidence he owned or lived there—this villa offers a glimpse into the luxurious lifestyle of the Roman elite before the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD buried it under ash and pumice. Unlike more famous sites like the Villa of the Mysteries, much of the Villa of Cicero remains underground, as it was partially excavated in the 18th century and then reburied, leaving limited physical access today. However, its artifacts, particularly its stunning mosaics and frescoes, provide substantial insight into its grandeur.
Entrance to Villa of Cicero
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The Villa of Cicero is situated immediately outside Pompeii’s
Herculaneum Gate, along the Via dei Sepolcri, a road lined with
tombs and other suburban villas like the Villa of Diomedes and the
Villa of the Mysteries. This prime location, just beyond the city
walls, was typical for suburban villae urbanae—luxurious residences
that offered a retreat from urban life while remaining close to
Pompeii’s social and economic hub. The villa stood on fertile land,
likely part of an estate that combined leisure with agricultural
production, a common feature of such properties. Its proximity to
the Bay of Naples would have provided scenic views, enhancing its
appeal as a status symbol for a wealthy Roman family.
Described in historical records as a casa pseudurbana (a semi-urban
house), the villa was part of a property owned by the Monastery of
the Celestine Fathers of Torre Annunziata in the 18th century,
leased to a tenant named Ignazio Russo (also known as Balzano). Its
strategic placement near the city gate underscores its role as a
prestigious residence, possibly used for entertaining guests and
showcasing the owner’s wealth through art and architecture.
The villa was first uncovered in 1759 by archaeologists from the
Herculanean Academy, under the patronage of Charles III de Bourbon,
as part of early systematic excavations of Pompeii. The 1759–1764
excavations, documented by figures like Francesco La Vega and
Alcubierre, revealed a large structure with 46 distinct areas,
though only a portion was explored. By 1763, after removing valuable
artifacts like mosaics and frescoes, the villa was reburied to
protect it from further damage or looting, a common practice at the
time. A small excavation in 1910 by Giuseppe Spano uncovered
additional details, such as features at the entrance, but no
comprehensive re-excavation has occurred since. Today, only a few
stones and the entrance area are visible above ground, with most of
the structure still entombed beneath the earth.
This limited
excavation makes the Villa of Cicero less accessible than other
Pompeian sites, but the artifacts preserved in the Naples
Archaeological Museum offer a vivid picture of its opulence. The
decision to rebury the villa reflects 18th-century priorities, which
focused on collecting art rather than preserving entire structures,
leaving modern archaeologists with tantalizing but incomplete
evidence.
While the full extent of the villa’s layout remains unclear due to
its reburial, a plan drawn by Francesco La Vega around 1778, later
incorporated by François Mazois in 1824, outlines 46 rooms or areas,
suggesting a sprawling complex. The villa likely followed the
typical design of a Roman villa urbana, blending residential,
social, and possibly agricultural functions. Key features include:
Entrance: The entrance, partially visible today, faces the Via
dei Sepolcri and was flanked by two semi-circular walled bases
(60–90 cm high) coated with red-painted stucco, likely used to hold
decorative plants. A large circular basin (1.9 m deep, 2.65 m wide)
made of opus signinum (a durable Roman concrete) was found near the
entrance, designed to collect rainwater from the villa’s upper
levels. This basin, with a concave base and a water distribution
channel, indicates sophisticated water management.
Peristyle: A
colonnaded courtyard, or peristyle, was a central feature, visible
in early photographs (c. 1900) before reburial. This open space,
typical of elite Roman homes, would have been used for relaxation
and social gatherings, surrounded by rooms decorated with frescoes
and mosaics.
Triclinium and Other Rooms: Several rooms, including
a triclinium (dining room), were identified as sources of major
artifacts. The triclinium, excavated in 1748, yielded elaborate wall
paintings, suggesting it was a space for lavish banquets. Other
rooms, labeled ambientes in excavation reports, included reception
areas, living quarters, and possibly service spaces.
Water
Management: The presence of the rainwater basin and channels points
to advanced engineering, ensuring the villa’s self-sufficiency in
water for domestic and possibly agricultural use.
The villa’s
size and complexity suggest it was a high-status residence, possibly
with gardens, vineyards, or orchards, as was common for suburban
villas. Its design likely emphasized symmetry, open spaces, and
integration with the landscape, aligning with Roman architectural
ideals of harmony and luxury.
The Villa of Cicero is renowned for its exquisite decorative
elements, many of which were removed during the 18th-century
excavations and are now housed in the Naples Archaeological Museum.
These artifacts, including mosaics and frescoes, reflect the wealth
and cultural sophistication of the villa’s owners, showcasing themes
from mythology, theater, and daily life. Notable examples include:
Mosaics
Group of Street Musicians (Ambiente 13, found April
8, 1763, Inv. 9985): This mosaic emblema (a central panel), signed
by the artist Dioskourides of Samos, depicts a lively scene of
street musicians, including a woman playing a double flute, a figure
with cymbals, another with a tambourine, and a boy watching. Crafted
in opus vermiculatum (fine, colorful tesserae), it exemplifies
Hellenistic influence and dates to the 3rd or 2nd century BC. The
scene may derive from a comedy by Menander, such as The Possessed
Girl, highlighting the villa’s connection to theater and
performance.
The Sorceress (Ambiente 33, found March 8, 1764,
Inv. 9987): Another signed work by Dioskourides, this mosaic shows
three masked actors, possibly from Aristophanes’ Synaristoi or a New
Comedy play. The scene, often interpreted as a sorceress preparing
love potions, features pastel hues, volumetric depth, and a sense of
perspective, reproducing a Hellenistic painting. Its fine
craftsmanship underscores the villa’s role as a showcase for high
art.
These mosaics, among the finest from Pompeii, demonstrate
the owner’s wealth and taste, as signed works by Dioskourides were
rare and prestigious.
Frescoes
The villa’s frescoes,
primarily in the Second Style (c. 80–20 BC), are vibrant and varied,
covering mythological, Dionysian, and pastoral themes:
Dionysian Scenes (Triclinium, found May 1748): Wall paintings from
the triclinium include:
Three candelabra with cupids related to
Dionysus (Inv. 9874).
A candelabrum with a flying cupid in a
medallion (Inv. 8538).
Four candelabra with cupids making votive
offerings (Inv. 9869).
Flying female figures, possibly dancers or
maenads (Inv. 9295), noted for their fluid, diaphanous dresses that
seem to float. These frescoes, celebrated for their dynamism, evoke
the ecstatic worship of Dionysus, a popular motif in elite homes.
Europa and the Bull (Ambiente 1, found January 25, 1749, Inv.
9900): This painting, possibly depicting the myth of Europa or a
related scene with a naked woman and a sea creature, showcases
mythological storytelling.
Bacchus with Panther and Silenus
(Ambiente 1, found March 29, 1749, Inv. 9274): A vivid depiction of
Bacchus (Dionysus) with a cup and panther, accompanied by Silenus
playing a cithara, emphasizes the villa’s Dionysian theme.
Dancing Maenads (Inv. 9297): These frescoes, showing young women in
colorful veils dancing, are striking for their Third Style (c. 20
BC–45 AD) elegance and movement, suggesting ritual or celebratory
scenes.
Pastoral and Idyllic Scenes: Paintings like a shepherd in
a landscape with a sacral building (Inv. 9418) or a country scene
with a tower (Ambiente 13, found April 28, 1763, Inv. 9416) reflect
Roman fascination with idealized nature.
Sileni Tightrope Walkers
(Inv. 9118): A fresco depicting Silenus with cymbals and other
figures performing acrobatics adds a playful, theatrical element.
Garden Views (Ambiente 40, found June 2, 1770, Inv. 9406): Paintings
of gardens with porticos highlight the villa’s integration of indoor
and outdoor aesthetics.
Other Finds
Round Portrait Panel
(found October 25, 1760, Inv. 9086): A female figure with a bird,
possibly a portrait or mythological scene.
Maenad with Platter
(Inv. 9292): A figure carrying ritual objects, reinforcing Dionysian
motifs.
Pastiche Fragments: Some artworks, like a female figure
on a chariot with a cupid medallion (Inv. 8831), combine disparate
elements, showing the villa’s eclectic decor.
These decorations,
spanning the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, blend Hellenistic
and Roman styles, suggesting the villa was updated over time to
reflect changing tastes. The prevalence of Dionysian imagery—cupids,
maenads, Bacchus—points to the cult’s popularity among the elite,
possibly indicating ritual spaces or simply fashionable decor.
The Villa of Cicero likely served multiple purposes:
Residential:
A luxurious home for a wealthy family, with spaces for dining,
entertaining, and relaxation.
Social: The peristyle and decorated
rooms suggest it hosted gatherings, where art and architecture impressed
guests.
Agricultural: The presence of fertile land and water
management systems hints at vineyards or orchards, common in suburban
villas.
The villa’s ownership is unknown, as is typical for many
Pompeian homes. The name “Villa of Cicero” was applied arbitrarily in
the 18th century, possibly due to Cicero’s fame and his known ownership
of multiple villas (though none are confirmed in Pompeii). No
inscriptions or seals, like those found in the Villa of the Mysteries,
provide clues to the owner. It may have belonged to a local elite family
or a Roman aristocrat with ties to Campania, given the villa’s size and
decoration.
The Villa of Cicero offers valuable insights into Roman suburban
life:
Artistic Excellence: Its mosaics and frescoes, especially those
signed by Dioskourides, highlight Pompeii’s role as a center of
Hellenistic and Roman art. The preservation of these works in the Naples
Museum makes them accessible for study, even if the villa itself is not.
Social Status: The villa reflects the wealth and cultural aspirations of
Pompeii’s elite, who used art to signal sophistication and piety,
particularly through Dionysian themes.
Archaeological Challenges: The
villa’s reburial underscores the limitations of early excavation
practices, which prioritized artifacts over context. Its current state
fuels debates about whether to re-excavate, balancing preservation with
discovery.
Compared to the Villa of the Mysteries, which is fully
excavated and famous for its frescoes, the Villa of Cicero remains a
hidden gem, known more through its artifacts than its physical remains.
Its mosaics, like the Street Musicians, are among Pompeii’s finest,
rivaling those from the House of the Faun.
Today, the Villa of Cicero is largely underground, with only the entrance area and a few protruding stones visible near the Herculaneum Gate. Visitors to Pompeii can see its location along the Via dei Sepolcri, but the site itself is not open for exploration. The Naples Archaeological Museum houses its artifacts, where the mosaics and frescoes are displayed with detailed labels (e.g., Inv. 9985, 9987, 9295). There are no plans for re-excavation, as priorities focus on preserving exposed sites, but future technologies like ground-penetrating radar could reveal more without digging.